Rhinoceros - II

Adult rhinoceros have no real predators in the wild, other than humans. Young rhinos can however fall prey to big cats, crocodiles, wild dogs, and hyenas.
Although rhinos are large and have a reputation for being tough, they are very easily poached; they visit water holes daily and can be easily killed while they drink. As of December 2009, poaching increased globally while efforts to protect the rhino are considered increasingly ineffective. The worst estimate, that only 3% of poachers are successfully countered, is reported of Zimbabwe, while Nepal has largely avoided the crisis.^[33] Poachers have become more sophisticated. About 69% of rhinos in the world live in Nepal.^{[citation needed]} South African officials have called for urgent action against poaching after poachers killed the last female rhino in the Krugersdorp Game Reserve near Johannesburg.^[34] Statistics from South African National Parks show that 333 rhinoceros were killed in South Africa in 2010,^[35] increasing to 668 by 2012,^[36] and over 1,004 in 2013.^[37][38][39] In some cases rhinos are drugged and their horns removed, while in other instances more than the horn is taken.^[40]
The Namibian government and Save the Rhino International have been positive about the benefits that rhino trophy hunting may hold for conservation. Hunting licenses for five Namibian Black rhinos are auctioned annually. Additionally, support for a legal trade of rhino horn to combat poaching has been growing.^[41] Some conservationists and members of the public however oppose or question this practice.^[



Rhinoceros horns, unlike those of other horned mammals (which have a bony core), only consist of keratin. Rhinoceros horns are used in traditional Asian medicine, and for dagger handles in Yemen and Oman. Esmond Bradley Martin has reported on the trade for dagger handles in Yemen.^[43] The market for rhino horn is however largely driven by practitioners of traditional Chinese medicine who consider the horn an effective and even life-saving medicine.
It is a common misconception that rhinoceros horn in powdered form is used as an aphrodisiac in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) as Cornu Rhinoceri Asiatici (犀角, xījiǎo, "rhinoceros horn"). It is in fact prescribed for fevers and convulsions,^[44] a treatment not supported by evidence-based medicine. Discussions with TCM practitioners to reduce its use have met with mixed results because some TCM doctors consider rhino horn a life-saving medicine of better quality than its substitutes.^[45] China has signed the CITES treaty and removed rhinoceros horn from the Chinese medicine pharmacopeia, administered by the Ministry of Health, in 1993. In 2011, in the United Kingdom, the Register of Chinese Herbal Medicine issued a formal statement condemning the use of rhinoceros horn.^[46] A growing number of TCM educators have also spoken out against the practice.^[47] Rhino-horn shavings boiled in water are said to cool and cure headaches in traditional Chinese medicine; however, the brew has instead been compared to consuming fingernail clippings in water.^[48]
To prevent poaching, in certain areas, rhinos have been tranquilized and their horns removed. Armed park rangers, particularly in South Africa, are also working on the front lines to combat poaching, sometimes killing poachers who are caught in the act. A recent spike in rhino killings has made conservationists concerned about the future of the species.^[49] An average sized horn can bring in as much as a quarter of a million dollars in Vietnam and many rhino range states have stockpiles of rhino horn.^[50][51]
In 2011 the Rhino Rescue Project, organized by Ed and Lorinda Hern of the Rhino & Lion Nature Reserve in Krugersdorp South Africa,^[52] began a horn-trade control method consisting of infusing the horns (while on the animal) with a mixture of a pink dye and an acaricide (to kill ticks) which is safe for rhinos but toxic to humans.^[53] After sedating the animal, holes are drilled into the horns, fittings added, and the cavity connected with rubber hoses to a 2-foot-by-4-inch diameter metal container of the liquid mixture which is then pressurized.^[52] The infusion takes less than 20 minutes of the 45 minutes of anesthesia; because of the effect of the mass of the animals on their internal organs, they are rolled every 7 minutes while sedated. The procedure also includes inserting three RFID identification chips and taking DNA samples.^[53]
Because of the fibrous nature of rhino horn, the pressurized dye infuses the interior of the horn but does not color the surface or affect rhino behavior. The acaricide is expected to cause nausea, stomach-ache and diarrhea, or convulsions for anyone consuming the horn in Traditional Chinese Medicine, depending on the quantity, but would not be fatal; the primary deterrent being the knowledge that the treatment has been applied, communicated by signs posted at the refuges. The original idea grew out of research looking into using the horn as a reservoir for one-time tick treatments, and the acaricide is selected to be safe for the rhino, oxpeckers, vultures, and other animals in the preserve's ecosystem.^[53] It was claimed that the dye can not be successfully removed from horns, and would remain visible on x-ray scanners even when the horn is ground to a fine powder.^[53][54]
The UK charity organization Save the Rhino has criticized horn poisoning on moral and practical grounds. The organization questions the assumptions that the infusion technique works as intended, and that even if the poison were effective, whether middlemen in a lucrative, illegal trade would care much about the effect it would have on buyers on another continent.^[55] They also claim that poisoned horns could heighten demand for non-poisoned horns among wealthier buyers or could fuel the belief in magical properties of the horn if people survive the poisoning.^[56] Additionally, rhino horn is increasingly purchased for decorative use, rather than for use in traditional medicine. Save the Rhino questions the feasibility of applying the technique to all African rhinos, since the acaricide would have to be reapplied every 4 years.^[57] It was also reported that one out of 150 rhinos treated did not survive the anesthesia.^[52]
In 2011, horn poaching reached record levels, mostly due to demand from China and Vietnam.^[58] In March 2013, some researchers suggested that the only way to reduce poaching would be to establish a regulated trade based on humane and renewable harvesting from live rhinos.^[59] The WWF however opposes legalization of the horn trade, as it may increase demand,^[60] while IFAW released a report by EcoLarge, suggesting that more thorough knowledge of economic factors is required in order to justify the pro-trade option.^[61] The South African government has supported the establishment of a legal trade of rhino horn stating that at the 17th Meeting of Conference of the Parties to CITES (CoP17) in 2016 they will apply for a legal trade in Rhino Horn in an attempt to reduce poaching and prevent the extinction of this species.^[41]